Uzbekistan |
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Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan was the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) from 1924 until 1991, when it gained its independence. In 1992 Uzbekistan was officially designated a secular and democratic republic with the ratification of its first post-Soviet constitution. Although the constitution guarantees a multiparty system, the republic’s president, Islam Karimov, has established an authoritarian-style regime that has been intolerant of opposition groups. Although Uzbekistan was widely regarded as the most favorable of the Central Asian states for economic development, its transition from the planned economy of the Soviet period to one based on the principles of a free market has proceeded slowly since independence. Uzbekistan is a landlocked country that covers an area of about 447,400 sq km (about 172,700 sq mi). Mountains dominate the landscape in the east and northeast. Several branches of the western Tien Shan and Pamirs-Alai mountain ranges cross into Uzbekistan from neighboring Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, with some peaks reaching above 4000 m (13,000 ft). Areas of eastern Uzbekistan are especially prone to seismic disturbances; in 1966 a strong earthquake destroyed large portions of Toshkent. To the west of the mountains, Uzbekistan is generally low in elevation. More than two-thirds of Uzbekistan’s territory is covered by desert and steppe (semiarid grassy plains). One of the largest deserts in the world, the vast, barren Qyzylqum, lies in north central Uzbekistan, and extends into Kazakhstan. In northeastern Uzbekistan, southwest of Toshkent, lies the Mirzachol desert. Across west central Uzbekistan is a vast area of flat plains called the Turan Plain, while additional plains lie south and east of the Qyzylqum. The extreme western portion of the country is occupied by the Ustyurt plateau, an elevated plain with some small mountain ridges and abrupt edges. Uzbekistan generally lies between the two largest rivers of Central Asia, the Amu Darya and Syr Darya. These two roughly parallel rivers both have their headwaters in the mountains east of Uzbekistan and follow northwesterly courses toward the Aral Sea, a saltwater lake straddling the border between Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. Since the early 1960s the Aral Sea has shrunk to less than half its former size, and dry land has separated the remaining water into two main lakes. Uzbekistan’s largest river is the Amu Darya. This river is formed by the confluence of the Panj and Vakhsh rivers on the extreme southwestern border of Tajikistan, near the southeastern tip of Uzbekistan. The Amu Darya traverses a course generally parallel to, and at times part of, Uzbekistan’s southern borders with Afghanistan and Turkmenistan, then turns due north through Uzbekistan’s Qoraqalpogh Autonomous Republic toward the southern section of the Aral Sea. The Syr Darya is formed in the fertile Fergana (Farghona) Valley by the convergence of two rivers flowing from the east, the Naryn and Qoradaryo. The Syr Darya then flows westward through this valley and northern Tajikistan, turns north to cut through Uzbekistan, and enters Kazakhstan, eventually reaching the northern section of the Aral Sea. Another important river is the Zeravshan, which flows westward from the mountains of Tajikistan through east central Uzbekistan. Before it began to be tapped for irrigation, the Zeravshan was the Amu Darya’s largest tributary; now it dissipates in the Qyzylqum desert near the city of Bukhoro (Bukhara). Uzbekistan has thousands of small streams that expire in the desert, many having been emptied by irrigation. Extensive canal systems, such as the Amu-Bukhoro canal and many others built during the Soviet period, have greatly altered water-flow patterns. Artificial lakes and reservoirs have been created, many of which are fed by irrigation runoff. The largest freshwater lake is Lake Aydarkul, in northeastern Uzbekistan. Uzbekistan’s mixed topography provides divergent wildlife habitats. In the steppes the endangered saiga antelope can be found, as well as roe deer, wolves, foxes, and badgers. The desert monitor, a large lizard that can reach lengths of 1.6 m (5 ft), thrives in the Qyzylqum desert, along with a type of gazelle and a number of rodent species. The river deltas are home to wild boars, jackals, and deer, with a variety of pink deer living in the Amu Darya delta. The Turan (or Caspian) tiger is now extinct: The last one was killed in the Amu Darya delta in 1972. The endangered snow leopard, which has long been hunted illegally for its prized fur, lives in the eastern mountains. The mountains also are home to several types of mountain goat, including the Alpine ibex (characterized by enormous, back-curving horns), as well as lynx, wild boars, wolves, and brown bears. A number of bird species are native to the steppes, including ring-necked pheasants, black grouse, partridges, falcons, and hawks. Eagles and lammergeyers (a type of vulture) nest in the mountainous regions, preying on marmots and mouse hares. Ducks, geese, and other birds migrate through the marshes of the Ustyurt plateau. Plant life is equally diverse. Drought-resistant grasses and low shrubs cover the steppes, except in areas that have been cleared for crop cultivation. Ancient walnut-tree forests are located in the lower mountains, whereas spruce, larch, and juniper thrive in the higher elevations. Elm and poplar trees grow along river banks, along with dense stands of brush called tugai.Only 10 percent of the land in Uzbekistan is arable. The richest farmland is found in the river valleys and the alluvial plains at mountain bases. Uzbekistan contains significant mineral wealth. Deposits of gold, uranium, silver, copper, zinc, coal, and lead are mined. Uzbekistan also harbors large and as yet mostly undeveloped reserves of oil and natural gas. Uzbekistan has a harsh continental climate. Four distinct seasons create great fluctuations in temperature over the course of a year. Average daily temperatures in January range from -6° to 2° C (21° to 36° F) and in July from 26° to 32° C (79° to 90° F), although temperatures can be much more extreme. There are also wide ranges of temperature between day and night. Precipitation is scant, and the long, hot summers are marked by drought, although the only truly arid region in Uzbekistan is the Qyzylqum desert. The wettest months are March and April. Snow is common from December through February, although snow cover often melts within a couple of days. The evaporation of the Aral Sea is one of the worst ecological disasters in the world. The Aral has shrunk so much that it now holds only about one-fifth the volume of water it held in 1960. The shrinkage is due to irrigation withdrawals from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya, a practice that began on a massive scale in the early 1960s as part of the Soviet Union’s ill-conceived drive to increase cotton yields in Central Asia. Growing cotton in the naturally arid and saline soil in Central Asia requires excessive irrigation—cotton is a highly water-dependent crop. More than half of the Aral Sea basin is now a dry, salt-encrusted wasteland. The region’s ecosystem was severely degraded as the lake rapidly evaporated and the water flow became scant and intermittent in the two river deltas. Wildlife habitat has been destroyed on a catastrophic scale, and many animal and plant species have become extinct in the area. Wind storms pick up massive amounts of salt and sand from the exposed lake bed and deposit them elsewhere in the vicinity, mainly along the Aral shores, but sometimes as far as 400 km (250 mi) away. This has contributed to desertification, a process that transforms previously arable or habitable land into desert. The salt-laden dust storms, which also contain chemicals such as pesticides, have adversely affected human health: The toxic dust has been linked to respiratory illnesses and certain types of cancer. Uzbekistan and the other Central Asian states have created a fund to address the Aral Sea disaster, with the goal of stabilizing the situation. Industrial wastes and the heavy use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture have contributed to the severe pollution of Uzbekistan’s rivers and lakes. Contaminated drinking water is considered responsible for many human health disorders. Agricultural chemicals, including DDT, also have contaminated the soil in crop-growing areas. In 1992 the government established the State Committee for Environmental Protection. However, no major environmental initiatives are yet under way.Uzbekistan promulgated its first constitution as an independent republic in 1992, replacing the constitution of the Soviet period. The new constitution declares Uzbekistan to be a secular and democratic republic and guarantees basic human rights. All citizens aged 18 and older may vote. The head of state is the president, who is directly elected to a five-year term. The constitution states that the president may serve no more than two consecutive terms. In a March 1995 referendum, however, voters approved the cancellation of the presidential election due in 1997 and extended the president’s term of office to 2000. The president exercises broad executive authority. Among other duties, the president appoints the prime minister and a cabinet of ministers; these appointments must be approved by the legislature. In accordance with the provisions of the 1992 constitution, the legislative elections of December 1994 and January 1995 produced a new 250-seat body, the Oliy Majlis (Supreme Assembly). Members of the unicameral (single-chamber) assembly are elected to five-year terms. The president is empowered to dissolve the Oliy Majlis and call for new elections. The Oliy Majlis replaced the 500-member Supreme Soviet (the legislature of the Soviet period), whose deputies had been elected in 1990. The 1992 constitution provides for an independent judicial system with a Supreme Court at its apex. Supreme Court judges are nominated by the president and confirmed by the Oliy Majlis. The Qoraqalpogh Autonomous Republic has its own Supreme Court. Other high courts are the Constitutional Court, which is charged with protecting the constitution, and the High Economic Court. Lower courts are based in the regions, districts, and cities. Their judges are appointed by the president, without the requirement of legislative approval. For purposes of local government, Uzbekistan is divided into 12 viloyatlar (regions) and the Qoraqalpogh Autonomous Republic (Qoraqalpoghiston). Toshkent has special status, as its local government operates independently of regional authority. The president appoints khokims (governors) of the regions, a system designed to centralize political power in the republic. According to Uzbekistan’s constitution, Qoraqalpoghiston is self-governing and has its own legislature and other local government bodies. However, the central government exercises a large degree of control over the republic. Only two political parties were allowed to participate in the 1994-1995 elections to the Oliy Majlis: the ruling People’s Democratic Party (PDP, the successor to the Communist Party) and the Progress of the Fatherland Party, which was closely aligned with the PDP. After independence, the two leading opposition groups, Birlik (Unity) and Erk (Freedom) were banned, and their leaders went into exile abroad. Under pressure to demonstrate that Uzbekistan was allowing opposition to develop, President Karimov fostered the creation of two new parties, the Adolat (Justice) Social Democratic Party and the National Revival Democratic Party. Neither of these, however, is truly an opposition party, and neither openly criticizes the president’s policies. A comprehensive social welfare system was in place in Uzbekistan during the Soviet period. After independence, the government of Uzbekistan created a social insurance fund, a pension fund, and an employment fund. These funds are intended to provide a safety net for underprivileged social groups, especially during the economic upheaval caused by the transition from a planned economy to a market-based economy. The government-funded health-service sector is generally underdeveloped and has been in decline since independence. Some rural areas are not served by even the most rudimentary of health services. The media are state controlled and heavily censored in Uzbekistan. Only those publications that are owned and operated by the state are officially sanctioned; a compulsory reregistration of the mass media in December 1993 excluded all independent publications. The media are officially forbidden to express any Islamic and fervent nationalism. Two of the major papers are the Uzbek-language Khalq Sozi (Word of the People) and Russian-language Narodnoye Slovo (Word of the People). Both newspapers are official publications of the Oliy Majlis as well as the Cabinet of Ministers. Television and radio broadcasts are regulated by the state-operated broadcasting company. During the Soviet period, Uzbekistan had no armed forces separate from the centrally controlled Soviet security system. In 1992 the government of Uzbekistan began to form a national defense force. In 1997 the republic had an army of 20,400 personnel and an air force of 4000. In addition, paramilitary forces were estimated to number 16,000, including a National Guard of 700 that acts as the personal army of the president. Beginning at the age of 18, all males must perform 18 months of military service. In 1992 Uzbekistan subscribed to a collective security agreement with other members of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), a loose alliance of 12 former Soviet republics. In 1995 Uzbekistan opted to form a joint regional defense council, under the auspices of the United Nations (UN), with its neighbor states Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.Uzbekistan joined the CIS in December 1991 and has maintained strong ties with other CIS members, especially Russia and the other states in Central Asia. Uzbekistan subsequently was admitted as a member of the UN and the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE; in 1994 renamed Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe, or OSCE). Uzbekistan has also joined the Partnership for Peace (PFP) program of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which was established in 1994 to strengthen relations between NATO and non-NATO states. |
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